Ok im gonna make a few assumptions here and explain them because this could be many things:
Assumption 1 (connection string issue). the user credentials for a database running on your local sql server are likely to be valid on the server on which you deploy to (seems to be the way of the world) try connecting to the remote database using the credentials in the remote "published" copy of the websites configuration file. (connection string)
Assumption 2 (publish settings not correct). when you use the "publish" option from within visual studio you only deploy the website to my knowledge but some say you can configure it to deploy the database as well.
I would suggest making a change (eg add a table to the aspnet database) on your dev machine then using publish to see if that new table appears on the remote server, if it doesn't go to the server explorer in visual studio and run the wizard by right clicking on your database and clicking on "publish to provider" i tend to push the entire db to a script file then manually run that on the remote database (seems the cleanest option).
Assumption 3 (does the database even exist on the server). I could be wrong here but from what you're saying it sounds like you published the application and not the database to the server ... that results in some nice yellow server errors.
Check that the database exists if not ... do as suggested in asumption 2 and push the database manually.